Molecules, such as the isomers of glyceraldehyde—the atoms of which can have different structural arrangements—are known as asymmetrical molecules. The number of possible structural arrangements for an asymmetrical molecule depends on the number of centres of asymmetry; i.e., for n (any given number of) centres of asymmetry, 2n different isomers of a molecule are possible. An asymmetrical centre in the case of carbon is defined as a carbon atom to which four different groups are attached. In the three-carbon aldose sugar, glyceraldehyde, the asymmetrical centre is located at the central carbon atom.
The position of the hydroxyl group (―OH) attached to the central carbon atom—i.e., whether ―OH projects from the left or the right—determines whether the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light to the left or to the right. Since glyceraldehyde has one asymmetrical centre, n is one in the relationship 2n, and there thus are two possible glyceraldehyde isomers. Sugars containing four carbon atoms have two asymmetrical centres; hence, there are four possible isomers (22). Similarly, sugars with five carbon atoms have three asymmetrical centres and thus have eight possible isomers (23). Keto sugars have one less asymmetrical centre for a given number of carbon atoms than do aldehyde sugars.
A convention of nomenclature, devised in 1906, states that the form of glyceraldehyde whose asymmetrical carbon atom has a hydroxyl group projecting to the right is designated as of the D-configuration; that form, whose asymmetrical carbon atom has a hydroxyl group projecting to the left, is designated as L. All sugars that can be derived from D-glyceraldehyde—i.e., hydroxyl group attached to the asymmetrical carbon atom most remote from the aldehyde or keto end of the molecule projects to the right—are said to be of the D-configuration; those sugars derived from L-glyceraldehyde are said to be of the L-configuration. ![Carbohydrates. sugars containing an "aldehydo group [formula] of the D-configuration."](https://cdn.britannica.com/80/16980-004-3D246EFC/Carbohydrates-sugars-aldehydo-group-formula-D-configuration.jpg)
More From Britannicahuman digestive system: Carbohydrates
| common name | component sugars | linkages | sources |
|---|---|---|---|
| cellobiose | glucose, glucose | β1 → 4* | hydrolysis of cellulose |
| gentiobiose | glucose, glucose | β1 → 6 | plant glycosides, amygdalin |
| isomaltose | glucose, glucose | α1 → 6 | hydrolysis of glycogen, amylopectin |
| raffinose** | galactose, glucose, fructose | α1 → 6, α1 → 2 | sugarcane, beets, seeds |
| stachyose** | galactose, galactose, glucose, fructose | α1 → 6, α1 → 6, α1 → 2 | soybeans, jasmine, twigs, lentils |
| *The linkage joins carbon atom 1 (in the β configuration) of one glucose molecule and carbon atom 4 of the second glucose molecule; the linkage may also be abbreviated β-1, 4. | |||
| **Note that raffinose and stachyose are galactosyl sucroses. |
The configurational notation D or L is independent of the sign of the optical rotation of a sugar in solution. It is common, therefore, to designate both, as, for example, D-(l)-fructose or D-(d)-glucose; i.e., both have a D-configuration at the centre of asymmetry most remote from the aldehyde end (in glucose) or keto end (in fructose) of the molecule, but fructose is levorotatory and glucose is dextrorotatory—hence the latter has been given the alternative name dextrose. Although the initial assignments of configuration for the glyceraldehydes were made on purely arbitrary grounds, studies that were carried out nearly half a century later established them as correct in an absolute spatial sense. In biological systems, only the D or L form may be utilized.
When more than one asymmetrical centre is present in a molecule, as is the case with sugars having four or more carbon atoms, a series of DL pairs exists, and they are functionally, physically, and chemically distinct. Thus, although D-xylose and D-lyxose both have five carbon atoms and are of the D-configuration, the spatial arrangement of the asymmetrical centres (at carbon atoms 2, 3, and 4) is such that they are not mirror images.
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